feat(alerts): alert email waits 2 minutes in the outbox and each alert records its outcome (#5507)

#5507 "Alert emails through the outbox, gathered for 2 minutes"
(milestone 501). Replaces the in-memory core/alert_burst.py.

- outbox.hold_alert: an alert joins each recipient's held alert email, or
  opens one due 2 minutes later (System 156 ruling). A Postgres advisory
  lock keeps two alerts at once from opening two windows for one reader.
- email_outbox_events.alert_json (migration 0043) keeps the alert as it
  fired, so the email written when the window closes says what it said.
- write_held writes it then, in the reader's zone: the usual alert email
  for one alert, the list for several (outbox.alert_words).
- after_settle records on each AlertEvent, once every email carrying it
  has settled: email_sent, or email_error naming each reader it didn't
  reach and the server's reason.
- A held email survives a restart and goes out when its window closes.
- A refusal of a message's one recipient no longer repeats the address.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 5.5 <noreply@anthropic.com>

docs/core/alerting.md

@@ -162,13 +162,26 @@ Configured at `/settings/` under SMTP. Settings:
 
 Email is skipped if `smtp.host` is empty.
 
-Alerts that arrive together go out as one email (`core/alert_burst.py`). The
+Alerts that arrive together go out as one email. The first alert opens a
-first alert opens a 30-second window. When it closes, each recipient gets one
+2-minute window. When it closes, each recipient gets one message listing every
-message listing every alert in the window, oldest first, in their own zone,
+alert in the window, oldest first, in their own zone, with a subject like
-with a subject like "[Steward] 3 alerts: 2 firing, 1 resolved". One alert on
+"[Steward] 3 alerts: 2 firing, 1 resolved". One alert on its own keeps its
-its own keeps its usual email. Every alert's event records whether the email
+usual email.
-went. A burst still waiting when Steward stops is not sent; its alerts stay on
+
-the Alerts page and in the history.
+Email waits in the database (`email_outbox`, `core/outbox.py`) until the mail
+server accepts it, so nothing waiting is lost when Steward restarts: the
+sender picks it up at boot. The sender runs every 15 seconds and settles each
+email on the server's answer:
+
+- **Accepted:** sent.
+- **Refused** (an SMTP 5xx, such as "no such mailbox"): failed at once, with
+  the server's words. Trying again would only repeat the refusal.
+- **Temporary** (no connection, a timeout, a 4xx): tried again after 30 s,
+  1, 2, 5, 10 and then every 15 minutes. An email the server still hasn't
+  taken an hour after its first try is failed with the last error.
+
+Once every email carrying an alert has settled, that alert's event records
+whether the email went, and to whom it didn't.
 
 ### Webhook
 

steward/core/alert_burst.py

@@ -1,105 +0,0 @@
-"""Alert emails gathered into one message per burst (#5465).
-
-When the network drops or a switch reboots, every host's agent-offline rule
-fires together, and one email per rule per account turns one incident into a
-dozen messages. So alert email waits: the first alert opens a window of
-BURST_WINDOW_S, and when it closes each recipient gets one email for every
-alert that arrived in it. An alert on its own still reads as it always has.
-
-Webhooks are not held here: each alert posts on its own, at once, since an
-integration expects one alert per post (core.alerts._dispatch_notification).
-Every alert's event still records the email's outcome.
-
-A burst held when Steward stops is not sent; the alerts stay on the record
-and on the Alerts page.
-"""
-from __future__ import annotations
-
-import asyncio
-import logging
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
-
-from sqlalchemy import select
-
-if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from quart import Quart
-
-logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
-
-# Long enough to gather what one incident sets off (the agent-offline check
-# runs each minute, agents report every 10-60 s), short enough that a lone
-# alert is still news when it lands.
-BURST_WINDOW_S = 30.0
-
-_held: list[tuple[dict, str]] = []          # (alert data, event id), oldest first
-_flusher: asyncio.Task | None = None
-
-
-def hold(app: "Quart", alert: dict, event_id: str) -> None:
-    """Add an alert to the email burst, opening a window if none is open."""
-    global _flusher
-    _held.append((alert, event_id))
-    if _flusher is None or _flusher.done():
-        _flusher = asyncio.create_task(_after_window(app))
-
-
-async def _after_window(app: "Quart") -> None:
-    """Wait out the window, then send what it gathered. Alerts that arrive
-    while the burst is being sent open the next window."""
-    global _flusher
-    try:
-        await asyncio.sleep(BURST_WINDOW_S)
-        await flush(app)
-    except Exception:
-        logger.exception("Alert email burst failed")
-    finally:
-        _flusher = None
-        if _held:
-            _flusher = asyncio.create_task(_after_window(app))
-
-
-async def flush(app: "Quart") -> None:
-    """Send every held alert now: one email per recipient, then record the
-    outcome on each alert's event."""
-    from steward.core.mail import recipients
-    items = _held[:]
-    _held.clear()
-    if not items:
-        return
-    smtp = app.config.get("SMTP", {})
-    if not smtp.get("host"):
-        return
-    async with app.db_sessionmaker() as db:
-        to = await recipients(db, "alerts", smtp)
-    result = await email_burst(smtp, [alert for alert, _ in items], to)
-    if result is not None:
-        await _record(app, [event_id for _, event_id in items], result)
-
-
-async def email_burst(cfg: dict, alerts: list[dict], to: list) -> dict | None:
-    """Email `alerts` to each recipient as one message, in their own zone:
-    the usual alert email for one alert, a list for several. Returns
-    {"sent", "error"}, or None when there is nobody to send to."""
-    from steward.core.mail import alert_email, burst_email, message, send
-    if not to or not alerts:
-        return None
-    try:
-        messages = []
-        for r in to:
-            parts = alert_email(cfg, alerts[0], r) if len(alerts) == 1 else burst_email(cfg, alerts, r)
-            messages.append(message(cfg, r.address, *parts))
-        await send(cfg, messages)
-        return {"sent": True, "error": None}
-    except Exception as exc:
-        logger.error("Alert email failed: %s", exc)
-        return {"sent": False, "error": str(exc)}
-
-
-async def _record(app: "Quart", event_ids: list[str], result: dict) -> None:
-    from steward.models.alerts import AlertEvent
-    async with app.db_sessionmaker() as db:
-        async with db.begin():
-            for event in (await db.execute(
-                    select(AlertEvent).where(AlertEvent.id.in_(event_ids)))).scalars():
-                event.email_sent = result["sent"]
-                event.email_error = result.get("error")

steward/core/alerts.py

@@ -495,9 +495,10 @@ async def _dispatch_notification(
     event_id: str,
     note: str | None = None,
 ) -> None:
-    """Run after the transaction commits. Holds the alert's email for its
+    """Run after the transaction commits. Queues the alert's email in the
-    burst (core.alert_burst), posts its webhook, and records the webhook's
+    outbox, gathered for 2 minutes with any others (core.outbox.hold_alert),
-    outcome on the event; the burst records the email's."""
+    posts its webhook, and records the webhook's outcome on the event; the
+    outbox records the email's once it settles."""
     from steward.core.notifications import dispatch_notifications
 
     alert_data = {
@@ -513,11 +514,14 @@ async def _dispatch_notification(
         "timestamp": datetime.now(timezone.utc).isoformat(),
     }
 
-    # Email waits a moment so alerts that arrive together go out as one
+    # Email waits so alerts that arrive together go out as one message per
-    # message per recipient (#5465); the webhook posts this alert now.
+    # recipient (#5465, #5507); the webhook posts this alert now.
-    from steward.core import alert_burst
+    from steward.core import outbox
     if app.config.get("SMTP", {}).get("host"):
-        alert_burst.hold(app, alert_data, event_id)
+        try:
+            await outbox.hold_alert(app, alert_data, event_id)
+        except Exception:
+            logger.exception("Alert %s: its email could not be queued", event_id)
     results = await dispatch_notifications({}, app.config.get("WEBHOOK", {}), alert_data)
 
     webhook_r = results.get("webhook")

steward/core/mail.py

@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ def alert_email(cfg: dict, alert: dict, to: Recipient) -> tuple[str, str, str]:
 
 def burst_email(cfg: dict, alerts: list[dict], to: Recipient) -> tuple[str, str, str]:
     """(subject, text, html) for several alerts that arrived together
-    (core.alert_burst, #5465): how many and what they came to in the subject,
+    (core.outbox.alert_words, #5465): how many and what they came to in the subject,
     then each alert's headline, rule and time, oldest first, in the
     recipient's zone."""
     from collections import Counter

steward/core/outbox.py

@@ -16,21 +16,28 @@ How a row settles:
   by then, it is failed with the last error.
 - **a test** (retry=False): settles on its first answer either way.
 
+Alert email (#5507) is held: the first alert opens a row per recipient with
+send_after ALERT_WINDOW_S out, alerts arriving before it closes join the
+same rows, and the email is written when the window closes: the usual alert
+email for one, a list for several. Each alert's event records the outcome
+once every email carrying it has settled.
+
 Nothing is kept in memory. A row left behind by a restart is still pending
 (or held, or claimed by a run that died), and the next tick picks it up.
 """
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import asyncio
+import json
 import logging
 import smtplib
 from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
 from email.message import EmailMessage
 from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
 
-from sqlalchemy import or_, select, update
+from sqlalchemy import insert, or_, select, text, update
 
-from steward.models.outbox import EmailOutbox
+from steward.models.outbox import EmailOutbox, email_outbox_events
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from quart import Quart
@@ -47,6 +54,10 @@ GIVE_UP_S = 3600
 # A claim older than this belongs to a run that died mid-send: back to pending.
 STALE_CLAIM_S = 300
 BATCH = 50
+# Alerts that fire within this of the first go out as one email (System 156
+# ruling: "change the timing on 3 to be 2 minutes"). One incident's alerts
+# arrive over a minute or so: the agent-offline check runs each minute.
+ALERT_WINDOW_S = 120
 
 
 def backoff(attempts: int) -> int:
@@ -76,6 +87,9 @@ def reason(exc: BaseException) -> str:
         text = msg.decode(errors="replace") if isinstance(msg, bytes) else str(msg)
         return f"{code} {' '.join(text.split())}"
     if isinstance(exc, smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused):
+        # Each message has one reader, whose row already names them.
+        if len(exc.recipients) == 1:
+            return said(*next(iter(exc.recipients.values())))
         return "; ".join(f"{to}: {said(c, m)}" for to, (c, m) in exc.recipients.items())
     if isinstance(exc, smtplib.SMTPResponseException):
         return said(exc.smtp_code, exc.smtp_error)
@@ -148,10 +162,61 @@ def deliver_sync(cfg: dict, messages: list[EmailMessage]) -> list[BaseException
     return outcomes + [smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected("connection lost")] * (len(messages) - len(outcomes))
 
 
-async def write_held(app: "Quart", row: EmailOutbox) -> None:
+async def hold_alert(app: "Quart", alert: dict, event_id: str,
-    """Fill in a row queued without its words: an alert burst, written when
+                     now: datetime | None = None) -> int:
-    its window closes (#5507). Raises when it can't be written."""
+    """Queue an alert's email: join each recipient's open alert email, or
-    raise ValueError(f"no words to send for a {row.kind} email")
+    open one that waits ALERT_WINDOW_S. Returns how many it went to. The
+    event must be committed first (the link refers to it)."""
+    from steward.core.mail import recipients
+    cfg = app.config.get("SMTP", {})
+    now = now or datetime.now(timezone.utc)
+    async with app.db_sessionmaker() as db:
+        async with db.begin():
+            # One holder at a time, so two alerts at once can't each open a
+            # window for the same reader.
+            await db.execute(text("SELECT pg_advisory_xact_lock(hashtext('steward.email_outbox.alert'))"))
+            to = await recipients(db, "alerts", cfg)
+            if not to:
+                return 0
+            open_rows = {r.recipient: r for r in (await db.execute(
+                select(EmailOutbox).where(EmailOutbox.kind == "alert", EmailOutbox.state == "held",
+                                          EmailOutbox.recipient.in_([r.address for r in to]))
+                .with_for_update())).scalars()}
+            rows = [open_rows.get(r.address) or enqueue(
+                db, kind="alert", to=r, send_after=now + timedelta(seconds=ALERT_WINDOW_S), now=now)
+                for r in to]
+            await db.flush()
+            await db.execute(insert(email_outbox_events), [
+                {"outbox_id": row.id, "event_id": event_id, "alert_json": json.dumps(alert)}
+                for row in rows])
+    return len(to)
+
+
+def alert_words(cfg: dict, alerts: list[dict], to: "Recipient") -> tuple[str, str, str]:
+    """(subject, text, html) for the alerts one email carries, oldest first:
+    the usual alert email for one, a list of them for several (#5465)."""
+    from steward.core.mail import alert_email, burst_email
+    return alert_email(cfg, alerts[0], to) if len(alerts) == 1 else burst_email(cfg, alerts, to)
+
+
+async def write_held(app: "Quart", db, row: EmailOutbox) -> None:
+    """Fill in a row queued without its words: an alert email, written when
+    its window closes, in its reader's zone. Raises when it can't be."""
+    from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
+
+    from steward.core.mail import Recipient
+    from steward.models.alerts import AlertEvent
+    if row.kind != "alert":
+        raise ValueError(f"no words to send for a {row.kind} email")
+    alerts = [json.loads(a) for a in (await db.execute(
+        select(email_outbox_events.c.alert_json)
+        .join(AlertEvent, AlertEvent.id == email_outbox_events.c.event_id)
+        .where(email_outbox_events.c.outbox_id == row.id)
+        .order_by(AlertEvent.transitioned_at, AlertEvent.id))).scalars()]
+    if not alerts:
+        raise ValueError("The alerts this email carried were deleted")
+    to = Recipient(row.recipient, ZoneInfo(row.tz), row.show_utc)
+    row.subject, row.text, row.html = alert_words(app.config.get("SMTP", {}), alerts, to)
 
 
 async def attempt(app: "Quart", ids: list[str], now: datetime | None = None) -> dict[str, str]:
@@ -172,7 +237,7 @@ async def attempt(app: "Quart", ids: list[str], now: datetime | None = None) ->
                 continue
             try:
                 if row.subject is None:
-                    await write_held(app, row)
+                    await write_held(app, db, row)
                 sendable.append((row.id, message(cfg, row.recipient, row.subject, row.text, row.html)))
             except Exception as exc:
                 logger.exception("email %s: could not be written", row.id)
@@ -196,8 +261,30 @@ async def attempt(app: "Quart", ids: list[str], now: datetime | None = None) ->
 
 
 async def after_settle(db, rows: list[EmailOutbox]) -> None:
-    """What else follows from these rows' new states, in the same
+    """Record on each alert event its email's outcome, once every email
-    transaction: an alert event's email outcome (#5507)."""
+    carrying it has settled: sent when all were, else failed naming each
+    reader it didn't reach and why. Same transaction as the settling."""
+    from steward.models.alerts import AlertEvent
+    done = [r.id for r in rows if r.kind == "alert" and r.state in ("sent", "failed")]
+    if not done:
+        return
+    link = email_outbox_events.c
+    touched = select(link.event_id).where(link.outbox_id.in_(done))
+    emails: dict[str, list] = {}
+    for event_id, state, recipient, error in (await db.execute(
+            select(link.event_id, EmailOutbox.state, EmailOutbox.recipient, EmailOutbox.last_error)
+            .join(EmailOutbox, EmailOutbox.id == link.outbox_id)
+            .where(link.event_id.in_(touched)))).all():
+        emails.setdefault(event_id, []).append((state, recipient, error))
+    settled = {eid: es for eid, es in emails.items()
+               if all(state in ("sent", "failed") for state, _, _ in es)}
+    if not settled:
+        return
+    for event in (await db.execute(
+            select(AlertEvent).where(AlertEvent.id.in_(settled)))).scalars():
+        failed = sorted(f"{rcpt}: {err}" for state, rcpt, err in settled[event.id] if state == "failed")
+        event.email_sent = not failed
+        event.email_error = "; ".join(failed) or None
 
 
 async def claim_due(app: "Quart", now: datetime, limit: int = BATCH) -> list[str]:

steward/migrations/versions/0043_outbox_alert_words.py

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+"""The alert each queued email carries, as it was when it fired (#5507), so
+an email written when its 2-minute window closes says what the alert said.
+
+Revision ID: 0043_outbox_alert_words
+Revises: 0042_email_outbox
+Create Date: 2026-10-09
+"""
+from typing import Sequence, Union
+from alembic import op
+import sqlalchemy as sa
+
+revision: str = "0043_outbox_alert_words"
+down_revision: Union[str, None] = "0042_email_outbox"
+branch_labels: Union[str, Sequence[str], None] = None
+depends_on: Union[str, Sequence[str], None] = None
+
+
+def upgrade() -> None:
+    # No row links an alert yet (#5506 shipped the table unused), so the
+    # empty default is only for the ALTER.
+    op.add_column("email_outbox_events",
+                  sa.Column("alert_json", sa.Text, nullable=False, server_default="{}"))
+
+
+def downgrade() -> None:
+    op.drop_column("email_outbox_events", "alert_json")

steward/models/outbox.py

@@ -65,4 +65,7 @@ email_outbox_events = Table(
            primary_key=True),
     Column("event_id", String(36), ForeignKey("alert_events.id", ondelete="CASCADE"),
            primary_key=True, index=True),
+    # The alert as it fired (notifications' alert dict), so the email written
+    # when the window closes says what it said then, whatever the rule says now.
+    Column("alert_json", Text, nullable=False, server_default="{}"),
 )

steward/templates/email/burst.html

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-{# Several alerts that arrived together (core.alert_burst, #5465), as one
+{# Several alerts that arrived together (core.outbox.alert_words, #5465), as one
    email's HTML part: alerts = [mail.alert_facts()], oldest first; said = how
    many of each ("3 firing, 1 resolved"); link = the alerts page or "". #}
 {% extends "_layout.html" %}

tests/core/test_alert_burst.py

@@ -1,79 +0,0 @@
-"""Alert emails gathered into one message per burst (#5465): alerts that
-arrive within the window go out as one email per recipient listing each of
-them; one alert alone keeps its usual email; a failed send says so for every
-alert in the burst; an alert arriving after a window closes opens the next."""
-import asyncio
-from email.message import EmailMessage
-from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
-
-from steward.core import alert_burst, mail
-from steward.core import notifications as n
-
-NY = ZoneInfo("America/New_York")
-ANN = mail.Recipient("ann@example.com", NY, False, "ann")
-BOB = mail.Recipient("bob@example.com", NY, False, "bob")
-CFG = {"host": "mx", "port": 587, "from": "alerts@example.com", "base_url": "https://steward.example/"}
-
-
-def _alert(host: str, state: str = "FIRING", value: float = 400.0) -> dict:
-    return {"rule_name": f"Agent offline: {host}", "state": state, "metric": "seconds_since_seen",
-            "value": value, "operator": ">", "threshold": 180.0, "resource": host,
-            "source_module": "host_agent", "note": None, "timestamp": "2026-10-09T12:00:00+00:00"}
-
-
-def _capture(monkeypatch) -> list[EmailMessage]:
-    out: list[EmailMessage] = []
-    monkeypatch.setattr(n, "_smtp_send_sync", lambda c, msgs: out.extend(msgs))
-    return out
-
-
-async def test_one_alert_alone_keeps_its_usual_email(monkeypatch):
-    sent = _capture(monkeypatch)
-    assert await alert_burst.email_burst(CFG, [_alert("web01")], [ANN]) == {"sent": True, "error": None}
-    assert len(sent) == 1
-    assert sent[0]["Subject"] == mail.alert_email(CFG, _alert("web01"), ANN)[0]
-
-
-async def test_a_burst_is_one_email_per_recipient_listing_each_alert(monkeypatch):
-    sent = _capture(monkeypatch)
-    burst = [_alert("web01"), _alert("web02"), _alert("db01", "RESOLVED", 12.0)]
-    assert (await alert_burst.email_burst(CFG, burst, [ANN, BOB]))["sent"]
-    assert [m["To"] for m in sent] == ["ann@example.com", "bob@example.com"]
-    assert sent[0]["Subject"] == "[Steward] 3 alerts: 2 firing, 1 resolved"
-    text = sent[0].get_body(("plain",)).get_content()
-    html = sent[0].get_body(("html",)).get_content()
-    for host in ("web01", "web02", "db01"):
-        assert f"Agent offline: {host}" in text and f"Agent offline: {host}" in html
-    assert text.index("web01") < text.index("web02") < text.index("db01")   # oldest first
-    assert "Fri 9 Oct 2026 08:00 EDT" in text                                # the reader's zone
-
-
-async def test_a_failed_send_is_said_for_the_burst(monkeypatch):
-    def boom(cfg, msgs):
-        raise OSError("connection refused")
-    monkeypatch.setattr(n, "_smtp_send_sync", boom)
-    got = await alert_burst.email_burst(CFG, [_alert("a"), _alert("b")], [ANN])
-    assert got == {"sent": False, "error": "connection refused"}
-
-
-async def test_nobody_to_send_to_sends_nothing(monkeypatch):
-    sent = _capture(monkeypatch)
-    assert await alert_burst.email_burst(CFG, [_alert("a")], []) is None and sent == []
-
-
-async def test_alerts_within_the_window_are_flushed_together(monkeypatch):
-    flushed: list[list[str]] = []
-
-    async def fake_flush(app):
-        flushed.append([a["resource"] for a, _ in alert_burst._held])
-        alert_burst._held.clear()
-
-    monkeypatch.setattr(alert_burst, "BURST_WINDOW_S", 0.05)
-    monkeypatch.setattr(alert_burst, "flush", fake_flush)
-    alert_burst._held.clear()
-    for host in ("a", "b", "c"):
-        alert_burst.hold(None, _alert(host), f"ev-{host}")
-    await asyncio.sleep(0.15)
-    alert_burst.hold(None, _alert("d"), "ev-d")      # after the window: the next burst
-    await asyncio.sleep(0.15)
-    assert flushed == [["a", "b", "c"], ["d"]]

tests/core/test_outbox.py

@@ -46,7 +46,9 @@ def test_reason_is_what_the_server_said():
     assert outbox.reason(smtplib.SMTPDataError(554, b"5.7.1  rejected\r\n as spam")) \
         == "554 5.7.1 rejected as spam"
     assert outbox.reason(smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused({"a@x": (550, b"no such user")})) \
-        == "a@x: 550 no such user"
+        == "550 no such user"
+    assert outbox.reason(smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused({"a@x": (550, b"no"), "b@x": (450, b"busy")})) \
+        == "a@x: 550 no; b@x: 450 busy"
     assert outbox.reason(TimeoutError()) == "The mail server didn't answer in time"
 
 
@@ -61,7 +63,7 @@ def test_a_refusal_fails_at_once_with_the_servers_words():
     row = _row()
     outbox.settle(row, smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused({"ann@example.com": (550, b"no such user")}), NOW)
     assert row.state == "failed" and row.next_attempt_at is None
-    assert row.last_error == "ann@example.com: 550 no such user"
+    assert row.last_error == "550 no such user"
 
 
 def test_a_temporary_failure_waits_and_tries_again():
@@ -160,3 +162,27 @@ def test_no_connection_is_every_messages_outcome(monkeypatch):
 
     monkeypatch.setattr(notifications, "smtp_open", _open)
     assert outbox.deliver_sync({}, _msgs(2)) == [refused, refused]
+
+
+CFG = {"host": "mx", "port": 587, "from": "alerts@example.com", "base_url": "https://steward.example/"}
+ANN = mail.Recipient("ann@example.com", ZoneInfo("America/New_York"), False, "ann")
+
+
+def _alert(host: str, state: str = "FIRING", value: float = 400.0) -> dict:
+    return {"rule_name": f"Agent offline: {host}", "state": state, "metric": "seconds_since_seen",
+            "value": value, "operator": ">", "threshold": 180.0, "resource": host,
+            "source_module": "host_agent", "note": None, "timestamp": "2026-10-09T12:00:00+00:00"}
+
+
+def test_one_alert_alone_keeps_its_usual_email():
+    assert outbox.alert_words(CFG, [_alert("web01")], ANN) == mail.alert_email(CFG, _alert("web01"), ANN)
+
+
+def test_several_alerts_are_one_email_listing_each_oldest_first():
+    burst = [_alert("web01"), _alert("web02"), _alert("db01", "RESOLVED", 12.0)]
+    subject, text, html = outbox.alert_words(CFG, burst, ANN)
+    assert subject == "[Steward] 3 alerts: 2 firing, 1 resolved"
+    for host in ("web01", "web02", "db01"):
+        assert f"Agent offline: {host}" in text and f"Agent offline: {host}" in html
+    assert text.index("web01") < text.index("web02") < text.index("db01")
+    assert "Fri 9 Oct 2026 08:00 EDT" in text                                # the reader's zone

tests/integration/test_alert_email_outbox.py

@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+"""Integration: alert email through the outbox (#5507), against Postgres.
+
+Alerts that fire within 2 minutes of the first join one held email per
+reader; when the window closes it is written as one message listing them,
+oldest first; each alert's event records the outcome once every email
+carrying it has settled, naming a reader it didn't reach. Only the SMTP
+conversation is replaced.
+"""
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import asyncio
+import os
+import smtplib
+import uuid
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
+
+import pytest
+
+pytestmark = pytest.mark.integration
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def app():
+    if not os.environ.get("STEWARD_DATABASE_URL"):
+        pytest.skip("needs Postgres")
+    from steward.app import create_app
+    return create_app(testing=False)
+
+
+def _alert(host: str, at: datetime) -> dict:
+    return {"rule_name": f"Agent offline: {host}", "state": "FIRING", "metric": "seconds_since_seen",
+            "value": 400.0, "operator": ">", "threshold": 180.0, "resource": host,
+            "source_module": "host_agent", "note": None, "timestamp": at.isoformat()}
+
+
+async def _events(app, tag: str, times: list[datetime]) -> list[str]:
+    from steward.alerts import service as alert_svc
+    from steward.core.alerts import record_metrics
+    from steward.models.alerts import AlertEvent
+    from steward.models.metrics import PluginMetric
+    from steward.models.users import User, UserRole
+    res = f"box-{tag}"
+    async with app.db_sessionmaker() as s:
+        async with s.begin():
+            user = User(username=f"ob-{tag}", email=f"ob-{tag}@test", password_hash="x",
+                        role=UserRole.admin)
+            s.add(user)
+            await record_metrics(s, [PluginMetric(source_module="host_agent", resource_name=res,
+                                                  metric_name="cpu_pct", value=1.0)])
+            await s.flush()
+            fields = await alert_svc.rule_fields(
+                s, name=f"hot {tag}", source_module="host_agent", resource_name=res,
+                metric_name="cpu_pct", operator=">", threshold=90)
+            rule = await alert_svc.add_rule(s, fields, created_by=user.id)
+            events = [AlertEvent(rule_id=rule.id, from_state="inactive", to_state="firing",
+                                 metric_value=95.0, transitioned_at=at) for at in times]
+            s.add_all(events)
+            await s.flush()
+            return [e.id for e in events]
+
+
+async def _emails_for(app, event_ids: list[str]):
+    from sqlalchemy import select
+    from steward.models.outbox import EmailOutbox, email_outbox_events as link
+    async with app.db_sessionmaker() as s:
+        rows = (await s.execute(
+            select(EmailOutbox).where(EmailOutbox.id.in_(
+                select(link.c.outbox_id).where(link.c.event_id.in_(event_ids)))))).scalars().all()
+        links = (await s.execute(select(link.c.outbox_id, link.c.event_id)
+                                 .where(link.c.event_id.in_(event_ids)))).all()
+    return rows, links
+
+
+async def _event(app, event_id):
+    from steward.models.alerts import AlertEvent
+    async with app.db_sessionmaker() as s:
+        return await s.get(AlertEvent, event_id)
+
+
+def test_alerts_in_one_window_are_one_email_and_each_event_records_it(app, monkeypatch):
+    from steward.core import outbox
+
+    tag = uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]
+    extra = f"oncall-{tag}@test"
+    app.config["SMTP"] = {"host": "mx.test", "port": 587, "from": "steward@test",
+                          "recipients": [extra], "tz": "America/New_York"}
+    t0 = datetime(2026, 10, 9, 12, 0, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
+    sent = []
+
+    def fake_deliver(cfg, messages):
+        sent.extend(messages)
+        return [smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused({m["To"]: (550, b"no such user")})
+                if m["To"] == extra and "web03" in m["Subject"] else None for m in messages]
+
+    monkeypatch.setattr(outbox, "deliver_sync", fake_deliver)
+
+    async def _go():
+        ev1, ev2, ev3 = await _events(app, tag, [t0, t0 + timedelta(seconds=30),
+                                                 t0 + timedelta(minutes=5)])
+        assert await outbox.hold_alert(app, _alert("web01", t0), ev1, now=t0) >= 1
+        await outbox.hold_alert(app, _alert("web02", t0), ev2, now=t0 + timedelta(seconds=30))
+
+        rows, links = await _emails_for(app, [ev1, ev2])
+        mine = [r for r in rows if r.recipient == extra]
+        assert len(mine) == 1, "both alerts joined the one held email"
+        (held,) = mine
+        assert held.state == "held" and held.subject is None
+        assert held.next_attempt_at == t0 + timedelta(minutes=2)
+        assert {e for o, e in links if o == held.id} == {ev1, ev2}
+        # Each reader has exactly one email carrying the pair.
+        assert len({r.recipient for r in rows}) == len(rows)
+
+        # The window closes: written, sent, and recorded on both events.
+        await outbox.attempt(app, [r.id for r in rows], now=t0 + timedelta(minutes=2))
+        (msg,) = [m for m in sent if m["To"] == extra]
+        assert msg["Subject"] == "[Steward] 2 alerts: 2 firing"
+        body = msg.get_body(("plain",)).get_content()
+        assert body.index("web01") < body.index("web02")
+        assert "Fri 9 Oct 2026 08:00 EDT" in body          # the Also-send-to zone
+        for ev in (ev1, ev2):
+            event = await _event(app, ev)
+            assert (event.email_sent, event.email_error) == (True, None)
+
+        # A later alert is its own email; refused for one reader, it is
+        # recorded as not sent, naming who and why.
+        await outbox.hold_alert(app, _alert("web03", t0), ev3, now=t0 + timedelta(minutes=5))
+        rows, _ = await _emails_for(app, [ev3])
+        assert all(r.state == "held" for r in rows)
+        await outbox.attempt(app, [r.id for r in rows], now=t0 + timedelta(minutes=7))
+        (refused,) = [m for m in sent if m["To"] == extra and "web03" in m["Subject"]]
+        assert refused["Subject"].startswith("[Steward]")   # one alert: its usual email
+        event = await _event(app, ev3)
+        assert event.email_sent is False
+        assert event.email_error == f"{extra}: 550 no such user"
+
+    asyncio.run(_go())
+
+
+def test_an_email_whose_alerts_were_deleted_fails_and_says_so(app, monkeypatch):
+    from sqlalchemy import delete
+    from steward.core import outbox
+    from steward.models.alerts import AlertEvent
+
+    tag = uuid.uuid4().hex[:8]
+    extra = f"gone-{tag}@test"
+    app.config["SMTP"] = {"host": "mx.test", "port": 587, "from": "steward@test", "recipients": [extra]}
+    monkeypatch.setattr(outbox, "deliver_sync", lambda cfg, msgs: [None] * len(msgs))
+    t0 = datetime.now(timezone.utc)
+
+    async def _go():
+        (ev,) = await _events(app, tag, [t0])
+        await outbox.hold_alert(app, _alert("web09", t0), ev, now=t0)
+        rows, _ = await _emails_for(app, [ev])
+        (row,) = [r for r in rows if r.recipient == extra]
+        async with app.db_sessionmaker() as s:
+            async with s.begin():
+                await s.execute(delete(AlertEvent).where(AlertEvent.id == ev))
+        states = await outbox.attempt(app, [row.id])
+        return states[row.id], row.id
+
+    state, rid = asyncio.run(_go())
+    assert state == "failed"
+
+    async def _reason():
+        from steward.models.outbox import EmailOutbox
+        async with app.db_sessionmaker() as s:
+            return (await s.get(EmailOutbox, rid)).last_error
+
+    assert asyncio.run(_reason()) == "The alerts this email carried were deleted"

tests/integration/test_email_outbox.py

@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ def test_the_sender_settles_each_row_on_what_the_server_said(app, monkeypatch):
     by = {k: rows[to[k]] for k in to}
     assert by["ok"].state == "sent" and by["ok"].sent_at is not None and by["ok"].attempts == 1
     assert by["refused"].state == "failed"
-    assert by["refused"].last_error == f"{to['refused']}: 550 no such user"
+    assert by["refused"].last_error == "550 no such user"
     later = by["later"]
     assert later.state == "pending" and later.attempts == 1 and later.last_error == "451 greylisted"
     assert later.next_attempt_at > later.first_attempt_at